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Difference between revisions of "Encrypted code: Hyperexcitability of the trigeminal system"
Encrypted code: Hyperexcitability of the trigeminal system (view source)
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'''Abstract:'''This section introduces the Cognitive Neural Network (CNN) as an analytical tool for complex clinical diagnoses, particularly in the context of the patient known as "Bruxer," who suffers from severe nocturnal and diurnal bruxism. Building on the method described in the "Encrypted Code: Ephaptic Transmission" chapter, the CNN is used here to refine and decrypt the machine language of the Central Nervous System (CNS) and provide a clearer diagnostic framework. The case study emphasizes the importance of distinguishing between dental and neurological contexts, with a focus on trigeminal system excitability and hyperexcitability. | |||
The diagnostic process begins by assessing the patient's clinical data, including a jaw jerk test that reveals slight asymmetry in amplitude, and progresses to using the CNN to evaluate specific PubMed results related to bruxism and the trigeminal system. The analysis highlights the relevance of electrophysiological tests, such as the recovery cycle of the masseter inhibitory reflex (rcMIR), in identifying hyperexcitability in the trigeminal motor system. | |||
Following the rcMIR analysis, a brain MRI confirms the presence of a pineal cavernoma, providing a definitive diagnosis. The chapter concludes that bruxism is not solely a dental issue but involves CNS hyperexcitability, suggesting that it may be a form of orofacial dystonia. The final considerations propose that bruxism, when accompanied by orofacial pain (OP), should be viewed as a potential manifestation of central nervous system dysfunction, with implications for broader neurophysiological assessments and treatment. | |||
==Introduction== | ==Introduction== | ||
We have therefore reached the section of the Cognitive Neural Network' abbreviated to 'RNC' presented for the diagnosis of the case of our 'Mary Poppins' in the chapter 'Encrypted code: Ephaptic transmission' and which we will propose again as a diagnostic model to accustom the reader to the procedure , simple, intuitive but essential in clinical cases of complex diagnosis such as our patient 'Bruxer'. Our starting point, therefore, is the point of arrival of the phase preceding the 'RNC', ie the discriminatory phase of the contexts ('''<math>\tau</math>''' Coherence Demarcator). The low diagnostic weight derived from the neurological assertions <math>\Im_n\cup0,33 | We have therefore reached the section of the Cognitive Neural Network' abbreviated to 'RNC' presented for the diagnosis of the case of our 'Mary Poppins' in the chapter 'Encrypted code: Ephaptic transmission' and which we will propose again as a diagnostic model to accustom the reader to the procedure , simple, intuitive but essential in clinical cases of complex diagnosis such as our patient 'Bruxer'. Our starting point, therefore, is the point of arrival of the phase preceding the 'RNC', ie the discriminatory phase of the contexts ('''<math>\tau</math>''' Coherence Demarcator). The low diagnostic weight derived from the neurological assertions <math>\Im_n\cup0,33 | ||
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====3rd Step: brain MNR ==== | ====3rd Step: brain MNR ==== | ||
MRI of the brain, using Turbo Spin Echo, Fluid Attenuated Inversion Recovery, and Gradient Echo sequences, was conducted before and after intravenous administration of contrast medium. Results showed the presence of a roundish area of approximately 1.5 cm in diameter located in the vicinity of the quadrigeminal cistern at the level of the pineal gland. There was also a slight dilation of the supratentorial ventricular system, which appeared in the axis and was most evident in the proximity of the temporal horns, with a periventricular rim with a transependymal fluid absorption phenomenon.<ref>Peter H Yang, Alison Almgren-Bell, Hongjie Gu, Anna V Dowling, Sangami Pugazenthi, Kimberly Mackey, Esther B Dupépé, Jennifer M Strahle. Etiology- and region-specific characteristics of transependymal cerebrospinal fluid flow. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2022 Aug 12;1-11. doi: 10.3171/2022.7.PEDS2246. Online ahead of print.</ref> The signal characteristics of the formation suggested a provisional diagnosis of pineal cavernoma. (Figures 2 and 3) | MRI of the brain, using Turbo Spin Echo, Fluid Attenuated Inversion Recovery, and Gradient Echo sequences, was conducted before and after intravenous administration of contrast medium. Results showed the presence of a roundish area of approximately 1.5 cm in diameter located in the vicinity of the quadrigeminal cistern at the level of the pineal gland. There was also a slight dilation of the supratentorial ventricular system, which appeared in the axis and was most evident in the proximity of the temporal horns, with a periventricular rim with a transependymal fluid absorption phenomenon.<ref>Peter H Yang, Alison Almgren-Bell, Hongjie Gu, Anna V Dowling, Sangami Pugazenthi, Kimberly Mackey, Esther B Dupépé, Jennifer M Strahle. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9990373/ Etiology- and region-specific characteristics of transependymal cerebrospinal fluid flow.] J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2022 Aug 12;1-11. doi: 10.3171/2022.7.PEDS2246. Online ahead of print.</ref> The signal characteristics of the formation suggested a provisional diagnosis of pineal cavernoma. (Figures 2 and 3) | ||
<center> | <center> | ||
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We found evidence of activation and peripheral sensitization of the nociceptive fibers, the primary and secondary nociceptive neurons in the CNS, and the endogenous pain control systems, including both the inhibitory and facilitatory processes in our subject. | We found evidence of activation and peripheral sensitization of the nociceptive fibers, the primary and secondary nociceptive neurons in the CNS, and the endogenous pain control systems, including both the inhibitory and facilitatory processes in our subject. | ||
The concentration of extracellular glutamate in 13 patients affected by cavernous angioma<ref>von Essen C, Rydenhag B, Nystrom B, Mozzi R, van Gelder N, Hamberger A. High levels of glycine and serine as a cause of the seizure symptoms of cavernous angiomas? J Neurochem. 1996;67(1):260–264. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]</ref> was reported to be increased in comparison with physiological concentrations. High levels of glutamate can cause negative effects on the brain through excitotoxic mechanisms, including degeneration of the superficial layer of the retina in a mouse after repeated administration of glutamate, termed “glutamate excitotoxicity”,<ref>Lau A, Tymianski M. Glutamate receptors, neurotoxicity and neurodegeneration. Pflugers Arch. 2010;460(2):525–542. doi: 10.1007/s00424-010-0809-1. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> resulting from NMDA receptor hyperactivation .<ref>Meldrum B, Garthwaite J. Excitatory amino acid neurotoxicity and neurodegenerative disease. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 1990;11(9):379–387. doi: 10.1016/0165-6147(90)90184-A. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> In a study in which the trigeminal ganglion neurons were exposed to KCl, the calculated release of glutamate was 10 times greater than the basal level.<ref>Xiao Y, Richter JA, Hurley JH. Release of glutamate and CGRP from trigeminal ganglion neurons: role of calcium channels and 5-HT1 receptor signaling. Mol Pain. 2008;4:12. doi: 10.1186/1744-8069-4-12. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> Further, a significant reduction in the release of potassium-induced glutamate was observed with addition of ω-agatoxin TK, a powerful P/Q calcium channel blocker, while the N-type calcium channel blocker ω-Cgtx conotoxin had a similar effect .<ref>McCleskey EW, Fox AP, Feldman DH, Cruz LJ, Olivera BM, Tsien RW, Yoshikami D. Omega-conotoxin: direct and persistent blockade of specific types of calcium channels in neurons but not muscle. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1987;84(12):4327–4331. doi: 10.1073/pnas.84.12.4327. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> Nimodipine, an L-type calcium channel blocker, was also found to reduce the amount of potassium-induced glutamate release.<ref>Hockerman GH, Johnson BD, Abbott MR, Scheuer T, Catterall WA. Molecular determinants of high affinity phenylalkylamine block of L-type calcium channels in transmembrane segment IIIS6 and the pore region of the alpha1 subunit. J Biol Chem. 1997;272(30):18759–18765. doi: 10.1074/jbc.272.30.18759. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> These studies suggest that the P/Q-, N-, and L-type calcium channels each mediate a significant fraction of depolarization-associated glutamate release. | The concentration of extracellular glutamate in 13 patients affected by cavernous angioma<ref>von Essen C, Rydenhag B, Nystrom B, Mozzi R, van Gelder N, Hamberger A. High levels of glycine and serine as a cause of the seizure symptoms of cavernous angiomas? J Neurochem. 1996;67(1):260–264. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]</ref> was reported to be increased in comparison with physiological concentrations. High levels of glutamate can cause negative effects on the brain through excitotoxic mechanisms, including degeneration of the superficial layer of the retina in a mouse after repeated administration of glutamate, termed “glutamate excitotoxicity”,<ref>Lau A, Tymianski M. Glutamate receptors, neurotoxicity and neurodegeneration. Pflugers Arch. 2010;460(2):525–542. doi: 10.1007/s00424-010-0809-1. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> resulting from NMDA receptor hyperactivation .<ref>Meldrum B, Garthwaite J. Excitatory amino acid neurotoxicity and neurodegenerative disease. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 1990;11(9):379–387. doi: 10.1016/0165-6147(90)90184-A. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> In a study in which the trigeminal ganglion neurons were exposed to KCl, the calculated release of glutamate was 10 times greater than the basal level.<ref>Xiao Y, Richter JA, Hurley JH[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2359740/ . Release of glutamate and CGRP from trigeminal ganglion neurons: role of calcium channels and 5-HT1 receptor signaling]. Mol Pain. 2008;4:12. doi: 10.1186/1744-8069-4-12. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> Further, a significant reduction in the release of potassium-induced glutamate was observed with addition of ω-agatoxin TK, a powerful P/Q calcium channel blocker, while the N-type calcium channel blocker ω-Cgtx conotoxin had a similar effect.<ref>McCleskey EW, Fox AP, Feldman DH, Cruz LJ, Olivera BM, Tsien RW, Yoshikami D. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC305078/ Omega-conotoxin: direct and persistent blockade of specific types of calcium channels in neurons but not muscle.] Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1987;84(12):4327–4331. doi: 10.1073/pnas.84.12.4327. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> Nimodipine, an L-type calcium channel blocker, was also found to reduce the amount of potassium-induced glutamate release.<ref>Hockerman GH, Johnson BD, Abbott MR, Scheuer T, Catterall WA. [https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)39047-1/fulltext Molecular determinants of high affinity phenylalkylamine block of L-type calcium channels in transmembrane segment IIIS6 and the pore region of the alpha1 subunit.] J Biol Chem. 1997;272(30):18759–18765. doi: 10.1074/jbc.272.30.18759. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> These studies suggest that the P/Q-, N-, and L-type calcium channels each mediate a significant fraction of depolarization-associated glutamate release. | ||
Glutamate release is obviously a much broader and more complex phenomenon. NMDA, kainate, and AMPA ionotrophic receptors, and the metabotropic glutamate receptors, have been found in the superficial lamina of the trigeminal nucleus caudalis in mice.<ref>Tallaksen-Greene SJ, Young AB, Penney JB, Beitz AJ. Excitatory amino acid binding sites in the trigeminal principal sensory and spinal trigeminal nuclei of the rat. Neurosci Let. 1992;141(1):79–83. doi: 10.1016/0304-3940(92)90339-9. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> NMDA and AMPA receptor antagonists can block the transmission of the nociceptive trigeminal-vascular signals <ref>Storer RJ, Goadsby PJ. Trigeminovascular nociceptive transmission involves N-methyl-D-aspartate and non-N-methyl-D-aspartate glutamate receptors. Neuroscience. 1999;90(4):1371–1376. doi: 10.1016/S0306-4522(98)00536-3. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref><ref>Goadsby PJ, Classey JD. Glutamatergic transmission in the trigeminal nucleus assessed with local blood flow. Brain Res. 2000;875(1–2):119–124. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]</ref> and reduce the high level of c-fos observed in the trigeminal nucleus caudalis following cisternal injection of capsaicin.<ref>Waeber C, Moskowitz MA, Cutrer FM, Sanchez Del Rio M, Mitsikostas DD. The NMDA receptor antagonist MK-801 reduces capsaicin-induced c-fos expression within rat trigeminal nucleus caudalis. Pain. 1998;76(1–2):239–248. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]</ref> Furthermore, micro-injections of ω-agatoxin into the ventrolateral area of the periaqueductal gray cause a facilitatory response of nociceptive activity in the trigeminal nucleus caudalis (TNC) activated by tonic electrical stimulation of the supratentorial parietal dura, adjacent to the middle meningeal artery.<ref>Knight YE, Bartsch T, Kaube H, Goadsby PJ. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6758884/ P/Q-type calcium-channel blockade in the periaqueductal gray facilitates trigeminal nociception: a functional genetic link for migraine?] J Neurosci. 2002;22(5):RC213. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]</ref> | |||
This response can occur through antinociceptive and/or pronociceptive effects, because the presence of P/Q-type calcium channels is required at the synaptic level for the presynaptic action potentials to couple with the neurotransmitter release processes.<ref>Dunlap K, Luebke JI, Turner TJ. Exocytotic Ca2+ channels in mammalian central neurons. Trends Neurosci. 1995;18(2):89–98. doi: 10.1016/0166-2236(95)93882-X. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> Of note, the pre-synaptic afferents in the PAG are positioned on GABAergic inhibitory interneurons and on descending projection neurons. Therefore, the facilitatory effect may be explained by an increased release of GABA, which would indirectly disinhibit the dorsal horn neurons, or by a direct pronociceptive mechanism.<ref>Pan ZZ, Williams JT, Osborne PB. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1189944/ Opioid actions on single nucleus raphe magnus neurons from rat and guinea-pig in vitro.] J Physiol. 1990;427:519–532. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]</ref> These experimental results provide further understanding of the clinical manifestations of pain and central nervous system hyperexcitability found in cases of cerebral cavernous malformations. | |||
Indeed, a blink reflex study on a 38-year-old patient with right hemicranial symptoms associated with a pontine cavernoma affecting the nucleus raphes magnus area revealed a reduction of the pain threshold and a persistent facilitation of the R2 response, with an onset latency difference of 4.4 ms less in the side displaying the symptoms [8]. This confirms a regulatory role for release of neurotransmitters by the nucleus raphes magnus, which exhibits a descending inhibitory control on the TNC <ref>Hentall ID. Interactions between brainstem and trigeminal neurons detected by cross-spectral analysis. Neuroscience. 2000;96(3):601–610. doi: 10.1016/S0306-4522(99)00593-X. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref>and on the entire antinociceptive mesencephalic complex.<ref>Jiang M, Behbehani MM. Physiological characteristics of the projection pathway from the medial preoptic to the nucleus raphe magnus of the rat and its modulation by the periaqueductal gray. Pain. 2001;94(2):139–147. doi: 10.1016/S0304-3959(01)00348-7. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> Our results suggest a hyperexcitability of the trigeminal nervous system in our subject, as follows. First, we evoked a direct response of the trigeminal motor system (bR-MEPs) to provide a value for reference and for amplitude symmetry, as the direct response of the trigeminal motor branch was not affected by any conditioning. A comparison between the jaw jerk responses versus the ipsilateral responses of the R-MEPs showed a much higher amplitude ratio than in normal subjects <ref>Cruccu G, Berardelli A, Inghilleri M, Manfredi M. Functional organization of the trigeminal motor system in man. A neurophysiological study. Brain. 1989;112(5):1333–1350. doi: 10.1093/brain/112.5.1333. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> (Table 1). Therefore, these data indicate the presence of hyperexcitability of the trigeminal system. | Indeed, a blink reflex study on a 38-year-old patient with right hemicranial symptoms associated with a pontine cavernoma affecting the nucleus raphes magnus area revealed a reduction of the pain threshold and a persistent facilitation of the R2 response, with an onset latency difference of 4.4 ms less in the side displaying the symptoms [8]. This confirms a regulatory role for release of neurotransmitters by the nucleus raphes magnus, which exhibits a descending inhibitory control on the TNC <ref>Hentall ID. Interactions between brainstem and trigeminal neurons detected by cross-spectral analysis. Neuroscience. 2000;96(3):601–610. doi: 10.1016/S0306-4522(99)00593-X. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref>and on the entire antinociceptive mesencephalic complex.<ref>Jiang M, Behbehani MM. Physiological characteristics of the projection pathway from the medial preoptic to the nucleus raphe magnus of the rat and its modulation by the periaqueductal gray. Pain. 2001;94(2):139–147. doi: 10.1016/S0304-3959(01)00348-7. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> Our results suggest a hyperexcitability of the trigeminal nervous system in our subject, as follows. First, we evoked a direct response of the trigeminal motor system (bR-MEPs) to provide a value for reference and for amplitude symmetry, as the direct response of the trigeminal motor branch was not affected by any conditioning. A comparison between the jaw jerk responses versus the ipsilateral responses of the R-MEPs showed a much higher amplitude ratio than in normal subjects <ref>Cruccu G, Berardelli A, Inghilleri M, Manfredi M. Functional organization of the trigeminal motor system in man. A neurophysiological study. Brain. 1989;112(5):1333–1350. doi: 10.1093/brain/112.5.1333. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> (Table 1). Therefore, these data indicate the presence of hyperexcitability of the trigeminal system. | ||
The facilitatory effect on the masseter reflex could be indirect. The highest concentration of premotoneurons in the orofacial motor nuclei is found in the bulbar and pontine reticular formations adjacent to the motor nuclei themselves, where these are GABAergic, glycinergic, and glutamatergic-type premotoneurons.<ref>Li YQ, Takada M, Kaneko T, Mizuno N. GABAergic and glycinergic neurons projecting to the trigeminal motor nucleus: a double labeling study in the rat. J Comp Neurol. 1996;373(4):498–510. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19960930)373:4<498::AID-CNE3>3.0.CO;2-X. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> In addition, the significant increase of the SP2 recovery cycle from S2 compared with the response from S1 (Table 2) corroborates the hypothesis of hyperexcitability of the trigeminal system. In an in vitro study performed on encephalic slices,<ref>Bourque MJ, Kolta A. Properties and interconnections of trigeminal interneurons of the lateral pontine reticular formation in the rat. J Neurophys. 2001;86(5):2583–2596. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]</ref> intracellular recording of interneurons of the peritrigeminal area (PeriV) surrounding the trigeminal motor nucleus (NVmt) and of the parvocellular reticular formation (PCRt) demonstrated that electrical stimulation of the adjacent areas could evoke both excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs). All the EPSPs induced by stimulation of the PeriV, PCRt, and NVmt were shown to be sensitive to ionotropic glutamate receptor antagonists (DNQX and APV), while the IPSPs were sensitive to the GABA and glycine receptor antagonists, bicuculline and strychnine. The cells of this sample showed a long after-hyperpolarization (AHP). | The facilitatory effect on the masseter reflex could be indirect. The highest concentration of premotoneurons in the orofacial motor nuclei is found in the bulbar and pontine reticular formations adjacent to the motor nuclei themselves, where these are GABAergic, glycinergic, and glutamatergic-type premotoneurons.<ref>Li YQ, Takada M, Kaneko T, Mizuno N. GABAergic and glycinergic neurons projecting to the trigeminal motor nucleus: a double labeling study in the rat. J Comp Neurol. 1996;373(4):498–510. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19960930)373:4<498::AID-CNE3>3.0.CO;2-X. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> In addition, the significant increase of the SP2 recovery cycle from S2 compared with the response from S1 (Table 2) corroborates the hypothesis of hyperexcitability of the trigeminal system. In an in vitro study performed on encephalic slices,<ref>Bourque MJ, Kolta A. [https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/jn.2001.86.5.2583?rfr_dat=cr_pub++0pubmed&url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori%3Arid%3Acrossref.org Properties and interconnections of trigeminal interneurons of the lateral pontine reticular formation in the rat.] J Neurophys. 2001;86(5):2583–2596. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]</ref> intracellular recording of interneurons of the peritrigeminal area (PeriV) surrounding the trigeminal motor nucleus (NVmt) and of the parvocellular reticular formation (PCRt) demonstrated that electrical stimulation of the adjacent areas could evoke both excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs). All the EPSPs induced by stimulation of the PeriV, PCRt, and NVmt were shown to be sensitive to ionotropic glutamate receptor antagonists (DNQX and APV), while the IPSPs were sensitive to the GABA and glycine receptor antagonists, bicuculline and strychnine. The cells of this sample showed a long after-hyperpolarization (AHP). | ||
In an electrophysiological study that analyzed a population of neurons and interneurons in the NVmt,<ref>McDavid S, Verdier D, Lund JP, Kolta A. Electrical properties of interneurons found within the trigeminal motor nucleus. Eur J Neurosci. 2008;28(6):1136–1145. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2008.06413.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> three types of AHP were seen: fast, slow, and biphasic. The majority of the motoneurons had a fast AHP (fAHP), whereas most of the interneurons had a slow AHP. The basic properties of these interneurons are similar to the previously described “last-order pre-motoneurons” in the PeriV,<ref>Kolta A, Westberg KG, Lund JP. Identification of brainstem interneurons projecting to the trigeminal motor nucleus and adjacent structures in the rabbit. J Chem Neuroanat. 2000;19(3):175–195. doi: 10.1016/S0891-0618(00)00061-2. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> suggesting that the interneurons in the NVmt are part of an interneuronal matrix surrounding the NVmt in which the motoneurons are inserted. In this last study, the authors describe the possibility, although rare, of interneurons also having an fAHP. | In an electrophysiological study that analyzed a population of neurons and interneurons in the NVmt,<ref>McDavid S, Verdier D, Lund JP, Kolta A. Electrical properties of interneurons found within the trigeminal motor nucleus. Eur J Neurosci. 2008;28(6):1136–1145. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2008.06413.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> three types of AHP were seen: fast, slow, and biphasic. The majority of the motoneurons had a fast AHP (fAHP), whereas most of the interneurons had a slow AHP. The basic properties of these interneurons are similar to the previously described “last-order pre-motoneurons” in the PeriV,<ref>Kolta A, Westberg KG, Lund JP. Identification of brainstem interneurons projecting to the trigeminal motor nucleus and adjacent structures in the rabbit. J Chem Neuroanat. 2000;19(3):175–195. doi: 10.1016/S0891-0618(00)00061-2. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> suggesting that the interneurons in the NVmt are part of an interneuronal matrix surrounding the NVmt in which the motoneurons are inserted. In this last study, the authors describe the possibility, although rare, of interneurons also having an fAHP. | ||
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It is also possible that bruxism may be a clinical form of dystonia. Our data indicate that bruxism may be a clinical manifestation linked to a CNS neurotransmitter imbalance, and therefore should be considered a subclinical condition of orofacial dystonia or dystonic syndrome. Nevertheless, this phenomenon also appears in a transitory form in children and is resolved with the eruption of mixed dentition.<ref>Watts MW, Tan EK, Jankovic J. Bruxism and cranial-cervical dystonia: is there a relationship? Cranio. 1999;17(3):196–201. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]</ref><ref>Monaco A, Ciammella NM, Marci MC, Pirro R, Giannoni M. The anxiety in bruxer child. A case–control study. Minerva Stomatol. 2002;51(6):247–250. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]</ref> | It is also possible that bruxism may be a clinical form of dystonia. Our data indicate that bruxism may be a clinical manifestation linked to a CNS neurotransmitter imbalance, and therefore should be considered a subclinical condition of orofacial dystonia or dystonic syndrome. Nevertheless, this phenomenon also appears in a transitory form in children and is resolved with the eruption of mixed dentition.<ref>Watts MW, Tan EK, Jankovic J. Bruxism and cranial-cervical dystonia: is there a relationship? Cranio. 1999;17(3):196–201. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]</ref><ref>Monaco A, Ciammella NM, Marci MC, Pirro R, Giannoni M. The anxiety in bruxer child. A case–control study. Minerva Stomatol. 2002;51(6):247–250. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]</ref> | ||
Many studies and diagnostic research protocols, including the Research Diagnostic Criteria (RDC), continue to appear in the field of OP and TMDs, although clear consensus has not yet been reached among the international scientific community.<ref>Lobbezoo F, Visscher CM, Naeije M. Some remarks on the RDC/TMD Validation Project: report of an IADR/Toronto-2008 workshop discussion. J Oral Rehabil. 2010;37(10):779–783. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2842.2010.02091.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> The RDC should consider the patient as affected by a painful syndrome, and should tend towards the definition of a differential diagnosis between organic and/or functional pathologies.<ref>Frisardi G, Chessa G, Sau G, Frisardi F. Trigeminal electrophysiology: a 2 × 2 matrix model for differential diagnosis between temporomandibular disorders and orofacial pain. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2010;11:141. doi: 10.1186/1471-2474-11-141. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> | Many studies and diagnostic research protocols, including the Research Diagnostic Criteria (RDC), continue to appear in the field of OP and TMDs, although clear consensus has not yet been reached among the international scientific community.<ref>Lobbezoo F, Visscher CM, Naeije M. Some remarks on the RDC/TMD Validation Project: report of an IADR/Toronto-2008 workshop discussion. J Oral Rehabil. 2010;37(10):779–783. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2842.2010.02091.x. [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> The RDC should consider the patient as affected by a painful syndrome, and should tend towards the definition of a differential diagnosis between organic and/or functional pathologies.<ref>Frisardi G, Chessa G, Sau G, Frisardi F. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2909162/ Trigeminal electrophysiology: a 2 × 2 matrix model for differential diagnosis between temporomandibular disorders and orofacial pain.] BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2010;11:141. doi: 10.1186/1471-2474-11-141. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]</ref> | ||
{{Q2|'Bruxism' is a form of instability of neural excitability of a functional and/or organic type, therefore not exclusively pertinent to dentistry.}}{{bib}} | {{Q2|'Bruxism' is a form of instability of neural excitability of a functional and/or organic type, therefore not exclusively pertinent to dentistry.}}{{bib}} | ||