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{{main menu}}{{ArtBy|
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| autore = Gianni Frisardi
| autore2 = Riccardo Azzali
| autore3 = Flavio Frisardi
}}


== Abstract ==
== Abstract ==
[[File:Spasmo_emimasticatorio_JJ.jpg|alt=|left|250x250px]]
[[File:Spasmo_emimasticatorio_JJ.jpg|alt=|left|250x250px]]
The text deals with the logic of probabilistic language applied to the medical field, highlighting how uncertainty is an intrinsic part of scientific practice. Through probabilistic and statistical concepts, efforts are made to manage and understand the uncertainties associated with medical theory and practice.  
The text deals with the logic of probabilistic language applied to the medical field, highlighting how uncertainty is an intrinsic part of scientific practice. Through probabilistic and statistical concepts, efforts are made to manage and understand the uncertainties associated with medical theory and practice.  
The role of probability in the relationship between theory and observation is emphasized, distinguishing between subjective uncertainty and randomness. Subjective uncertainty concerns individuals' state of knowledge and belief, while randomness refers to the lack of a certain connection between cause and effect.
The role of probability in the relationship between theory and observation is emphasized, distinguishing between subjective uncertainty and randomness. Subjective uncertainty concerns individuals' state of knowledge and belief, while randomness refers to the lack of a certain connection between cause and effect.
In the medical approach, the importance of understanding and distinguishing between subjective and objective probability is discussed. Subjective probability reflects individual belief, while objective probability is based on data and empirical evidence.
In the medical approach, the importance of understanding and distinguishing between subjective and objective probability is discussed. Subjective probability reflects individual belief, while objective probability is based on data and empirical evidence.
The concept of probabilistic-causal analysis is then further explored, which seeks to quantify the relationship between events and random processes in clinical diagnosis. A detailed exposition is presented on how conditional probabilities can be interpreted and how causal relevance partitioning can be used to formulate a differential diagnosis.
The concept of probabilistic-causal analysis is then further explored, which seeks to quantify the relationship between events and random processes in clinical diagnosis. A detailed exposition is presented on how conditional probabilities can be interpreted and how causal relevance partitioning can be used to formulate a differential diagnosis.
Finally, the theme of interdisciplinarity in scientific research is addressed, highlighting the importance of an interdisciplinary approach to tackling complex problems. Fuzzy logic is also mentioned as a possible tool for managing uncertainty in medical contexts.
Finally, the theme of interdisciplinarity in scientific research is addressed, highlighting the importance of an interdisciplinary approach to tackling complex problems. Fuzzy logic is also mentioned as a possible tool for managing uncertainty in medical contexts.


'''Subjective Uncertainty and Causality'''
{{ArtBy|
 
| autore = Gianni Frisardi
This section examines the internal uncertainties that individuals may experience when faced with a diagnosis, using Mary Poppins as a fictional reference. The concepts of subjective and objective uncertainties are explored:
| autore2 = Riccardo Azzali
* '''Subjective Uncertainty''': This type of uncertainty is dependent on an individual's knowledge and beliefs. It is highlighted that objectivity in science is often a shared consensus of subjective views, termed as intersubjectivity.
| autore3 = Flavio Frisardi
* '''Causality''': The relationship between causality and uncertainty is discussed in the medical context. Using mathematical expressions, it is shown how medical phenomena do not always follow a deterministic pattern but are rather influenced by probabilistic factors.
}}Every scientific idea—whether in medicine, architecture, engineering, chemistry, or any other field—when implemented, is prone to small errors and uncertainties. Mathematics, through the lens of probability theory and statistical inference, aids in precisely managing and thereby mitigating these uncertainties. It must always be considered that in all practical scenarios, "the outcomes also depend on many other external factors to the theory," be they initial and environmental conditions, experimental errors, or others.
'''Subjective and Objective Probability'''
 
This chapter revisits the discussions from Kazem Sadegh-Zadeh's work on the logic of medical language and applies it to the clinical case of Mary Poppins. It elaborates on how events are categorized as probable based on their randomness and subjective uncertainty:
* '''Subjective Probability''': Involves individual belief and varies according to the information available to the person making the assessment.
* '''Objective Probability''': In contrast, objective probability is based on empirical evidence and statistical data, reflecting a more quantifiable aspect of probability.
'''Probabilistic-Causal Analysis'''
 
Probabilistic-causal analysis is used to describe how clinical diagnoses are formulated. This involves assessing the likelihood of various conditions based on observed probabilities:
* The text details the process of causal relevance and how it can be used to infer potential diagnoses from given data sets.
* A specific focus is placed on the interpretation of conditional probabilities and how they can aid in the differential diagnosis.
'''Interdisciplinarity in Scientific Research'''
 
The importance of interdisciplinary approaches in scientific research is underscored, particularly in complex fields like medicine. The use of fuzzy logic as a method for handling uncertainty in medical contexts is proposed as an innovative approach to problem-solving across different disciplines.<center><div class="colour-button">[[Special:UserLogin&returnto=Introduction+Page|Read more]]</div></center>
== Introdduction==
Every scientific idea—whether in medicine, architecture, engineering, chemistry, or any other field—when implemented, is prone to small errors and uncertainties. Mathematics, through the lens of probability theory and statistical inference, aids in precisely managing and thereby mitigating these uncertainties. It must always be considered that in all practical scenarios, "the outcomes also depend on many other external factors to the theory," be they initial and environmental conditions, experimental errors, or others.


The uncertainties surrounding these factors render the theory-observation relationship probabilistic. In medical practice, two types of uncertainty predominantly impact diagnoses: subjective uncertainty and causality.<ref>{{Cite book | autore = Vázquez-Delgado E | autore2 = Cascos-Romero J | autore3 = Gay-Escoda C | titolo = Myofascial pain associated with trigger points: a literature review. Part 2: Differential diagnosis and treatment | url = http://www.medicinaoral.com/pubmed/medoralv15_i4_pe639.pdf | volume = | opera = Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal | anno = 2007 | editore = | città = | ISBN = | PMID = 20173729 | PMCID = | DOI = 10.4317/medoral.15.e639 | oaf = <!-- any value --> | LCCN = | OCLC = }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | autore = Thoppay J | autore2 = Desai B | titolo = Oral burning: local and systemic connection for a patient-centric approach | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6459460/ | volume = | opera = EPMA J | anno = 2019 | editore = | città = | ISBN = | PMID = 30984309 | PMCID = PMC6459460 | DOI = 10.1007/s13167-018-0157-3 | oaf = <!-- any value --> | LCCN = | OCLC = }}</ref> Therefore, in this context, it becomes crucial to differentiate between these two uncertainties and to demonstrate that the concept of probability assumes different meanings in these contexts. We will endeavor to elucidate these concepts by connecting each critical step to the clinical approach that has been documented in previous chapters, particularly focusing on the dental and neurological domains in vying for diagnostic supremacy for our dear Mary Poppins.
The uncertainties surrounding these factors render the theory-observation relationship probabilistic. In medical practice, two types of uncertainty predominantly impact diagnoses: subjective uncertainty and causality.<ref>{{Cite book | autore = Vázquez-Delgado E | autore2 = Cascos-Romero J | autore3 = Gay-Escoda C | titolo = Myofascial pain associated with trigger points: a literature review. Part 2: Differential diagnosis and treatment | url = http://www.medicinaoral.com/pubmed/medoralv15_i4_pe639.pdf | volume = | opera = Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal | anno = 2007 | editore = | città = | ISBN = | PMID = 20173729 | PMCID = | DOI = 10.4317/medoral.15.e639 | oaf = <!-- any value --> | LCCN = | OCLC = }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | autore = Thoppay J | autore2 = Desai B | titolo = Oral burning: local and systemic connection for a patient-centric approach | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6459460/ | volume = | opera = EPMA J | anno = 2019 | editore = | città = | ISBN = | PMID = 30984309 | PMCID = PMC6459460 | DOI = 10.1007/s13167-018-0157-3 | oaf = <!-- any value --> | LCCN = | OCLC = }}</ref> Therefore, in this context, it becomes crucial to differentiate between these two uncertainties and to demonstrate that the concept of probability assumes different meanings in these contexts. We will endeavor to elucidate these concepts by connecting each critical step to the clinical approach that has been documented in previous chapters, particularly focusing on the dental and neurological domains in vying for diagnostic supremacy for our dear Mary Poppins.
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Causality indicates the lack of a certain connection between cause and effect. The uncertainty of a close union between the source and the phenomenon is among the most challenging problems in determining a diagnosis.
Causality indicates the lack of a certain connection between cause and effect. The uncertainty of a close union between the source and the phenomenon is among the most challenging problems in determining a diagnosis.


In a clinical case, a phenomenon <math>A(x)</math> (such as a malocclusion, a crossbite, an openbite, etc.) is randomly associated with another phenomenon <math>B(x)</math> (such as TMJ bone degeneration); when there are exceptions for which the logical proposition <math>A(x) \rightarrow B(x)</math> is not always true (but it is most of the time), we will say that the relation <math>A(x) \rightarrow B(x)</math> ......................<center><div class="colour-button">[[Special:UserLogin&returnto=Introduction+Page|Read more]]</div></center>
In a clinical case, a phenomenon <math>A(x)</math> (such as a malocclusion, a crossbite, an openbite, etc.) is randomly associated with another phenomenon <math>B(x)</math> (such as TMJ bone degeneration); when there are exceptions for which the logical proposition <math>A(x) \rightarrow B(x)</math> is not always true (but it is most of the time), we will say that the relation <math>A(x) \rightarrow B(x)</math> is not always true but it is probable.{{q2|<!--30-->We are moving from a deterministic condition to a stochastic one.|}}
==Subjective and Objective Probability==
In this chapter, we revisit some topics previously discussed in the insightful book by Kazem Sadegh-Zadeh<ref>{{cita libro
|autore=Sadegh-Zadeh Kazem
|titolo=Handbook of Analytic Philosophy of Medicine
|url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-94-007-2260-6
|anno=2012
|editore=Springer
|città=Dordrecht
|ISBN=978-94-007-2259-0
|DOI=10.1007/978-94-007-2260-6
}}</ref>, which tackles the problem of the logic of medical language. We adapt their content to our clinical case of Mary Poppins, aiming to keep our understanding more relevant to dental contexts.
 
Events that are both random and subjectively uncertain are considered probable; therefore, causality and uncertainty are approached as qualitative, comparative, or quantitative probabilities.


To clarify this concept, let's use the example of Mary Poppins. A doctor, after hearing her symptoms, could state that:
# Mary Poppins is probably suffering from TMDs (qualitative term).
#Mary Poppins is more likely to have TMDs than neuropathic OP (comparative term: the number of diagnosed cases of TMDs vs. neuropathic OP).
#The probability that Mary Poppins has TMDs is 0.15 (quantitative term, relative to the population).
=== Subjective Probability===
In contexts of human subjective uncertainty, probabilistic, qualitative, comparative, and/or quantitative data can be interpreted by clinicians as measures of subjective uncertainty, to make 'states of conviction' numerically representable.


{{bib}}
For instance, stating "the probability that Mary Poppins is affected by TMDs is 0.15 of the cases" is akin to saying "with a 15% degree of belief, I think that Mary Poppins is affected by TMDs"; indicating that the degree of conviction corresponds to the degree of subjective probability.
===Objective Probability===
Conversely, events and random processes cannot be accurately described by deterministic processes in the form 'if A then B'. Statistics are utilized to quantify the frequency of the association between A and B, representing their relationship as a degree of probability, which introduces the concept of objective probability.


{{apm}}
Amid the increasing acknowledgment of the role of probabilization of uncertainty and randomness in medicine since the eighteenth century, the term "probability" has become an integral part of medical language, methodology, and epistemology. Unfortunately, the distinction between subjective and objective probability is not always clearly made in medicine, as is the case in other disciplines too. Nevertheless, the vital contribution of probability theory in medicine, especially in concepts of probability in etiology, epidemiology, diagnostics, and therapy, lies in its aid in understanding and representing biological causality.


[[Category:Articles about logic of language]]
{{:Store:LPLen04}}..............<center><div class="colour-button">[[Special:UserLogin&returnto=Introduction+Page|Read the full chapter]]</div>
</center>
<blockquote>
== [[Strategic dental topics for authors to subscribe an article]] ==
Probabilistic Language, Medical Field, Uncertainty Management, Subjective Uncertainty, Randomness in Medicine, Objective Probability, Clinical Decision-Making, Probabilistic-Causal Analysis, Differential Diagnosis, Interdisciplinary Approach, Fuzzy Logic, Medical Diagnostics, Treatment Efficacy, Precision Medicine, Personalized Patient Care</blockquote>
{{Bib}}
Gianni
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